Question 1. Consider the following statements about the archaeological findings in Harappan towns:

  1. There is wide occurrence of spindle-whorls in the houses but absence of spinning wheels.
  2. Weights and measurement scales, complete with graduations have been discovered.
  3. There are houses built in large part with baked bricks, around relatively spacious courtyards, with their own wells, bathing platforms, and large rooms.

Which of the following inferences can be drawn from the above statements?

  1. Statement I suggests that spinning was a laborious activity done at home.
  2. Statement II suggests the extent of the scientific knowledge that the Harappans possessed.
  3. Statement III suggests the emergence of a common property system.

Select the answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a) 1 and 2 only

Explanation:

Statement I on Spindle-Whorls:

Archaeological Evidence of Spindle-Whorls: Excavations at important Harappan sites, including Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Chanhu-daro and Lothal, have uncovered spindle-whorls made from materials such as terracotta, faience and shell. These small objects were attached to spindles to help rotate them and facilitate the twisting of fibres into yarn. Their discovery provides evidence of spinning as an established craft in Harappan society.

Absence of the Spinning Wheel: The familiar spinning wheel (charkha) was not the principal tool used for spinning during the Harappan period. The archaeological evidence points instead to the use of hand-operated spindles. The spinning wheel emerged much later in history, although its precise origin and the chronology of its spread across Asia remain subjects of historical discussion.

Inference — Labour-Intensive Textile Production: Spindle-whorls suggest that yarn production relied substantially on manual techniques. Spinning fibres into thread using a hand-operated spindle required repeated movements, skill and time. Textile production was therefore likely carried out on a small scale in households or other craft settings. However, the discovery of spindle-whorls alone cannot establish that every household produced textiles or that production was exclusively domestic; specialised craft production may also have existed.

Statement II on Standardised System of Weights

Standardised System of Weights: The Harappans developed a well-organised system of weights, many of which were made from chert, a fine-grained stone, and shaped into cubes. The consistency of these weights across several settlements suggests that standard measures were widely used, particularly in trade and economic activities.

Lower denominations: Many weights followed a binary progression, in which successive values doubled, such as 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64. This pattern continued into larger denominations. The commonly cited basic unit in one reconstruction of the system is approximately 13.6 grams, though the precise interpretation of the weight series varies.

Higher denominations: Larger weights also followed decimal or other multiples, including values such as 100, 200 and 500 in certain reconstructed series. Together, these arrangements indicate a systematic approach to weighing goods.

Evidence of Linear Measurement: Archaeological discoveries also provide evidence that the Harappans used graduated measuring instruments. Examples include an ivory scale from Lothal, a shell object bearing carefully marked divisions from Mohenjo-daro, and a terracotta fragment with incised markings from Kalibangan. The divisions on these objects suggest that accurate linear measurement was practised, although the precise function and interpretation of individual artefacts may differ.

Inference — Practical Mathematics and Technical Skill: The standardisation of weights and the use of graduated measuring devices point to considerable practical knowledge of measurement and numerical relationships. Similar standards found across a wide geographical area, extending from sites such as Sutkagan Dor in present-day Balochistan to Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh, suggest shared commercial practices and regular interaction among Harappan settlements. Such evidence supports the conclusion that measurement played an important role in trade, craft production and construction. It also indicates a high level of practical and technical organisation, although it does not by itself establish the existence of a formal system of state regulation.

Statement III: The Conceptual Catch — Private Property versus Common Property

Architectural Evidence of Domestic Privacy: Harappan houses were often designed around internal courtyards, with entrances and room arrangements that limited direct visibility from the street. In many cases, the outer walls had few openings facing public thoroughfares. These features suggest that privacy and the separation of domestic space from public space were important considerations in residential architecture.

  • Wells within Residential Premises: Some houses had their own wells, providing convenient access to water without complete dependence on shared sources.
  • Private Bathing Areas: Houses frequently contained bathing platforms, often constructed with carefully fitted bricks to facilitate the disposal of wastewater.
  • Household Drainage Connections: Domestic drains were connected, in many cases, to larger street drains. This arrangement demonstrates how individual households were linked to a wider urban sanitation system.

Why Inference 3 Is Problematic: The presence of enclosed residential spaces, household bathing areas and wells within individual houses does not, by itself, support the conclusion that Harappan society followed a common-property system. These features are more directly indicative of household-level control over domestic space and access to certain facilities. However, archaeological evidence alone cannot establish the precise legal status of land, houses or wells, nor can it prove that a modern concept of private property rights existed in Harappan society. The stronger conclusion is that Harappan urban life combined household-level facilities with shared civic infrastructure.

Evidence of Shared or Collective Infrastructure: Certain major structures and urban facilities indicate investment in infrastructure that served broader sections of the population.

  • Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro: This large, carefully constructed bathing tank may have served a communal or ritual purpose, although its exact function remains uncertain.
  • Large Public Buildings and Storage Structures: Large buildings at Harappan sites have sometimes been interpreted as granaries, warehouses or halls. Their precise functions, however, remain debated, and claims of state-controlled collection or distribution cannot be established with certainty.
  • Reservoirs at Dholavira: Dholavira had an elaborate system of reservoirs, channels and water-storage facilities designed to collect and conserve water. These structures demonstrate substantial urban planning and water management for the settlement.

Conclusion: Harappan architecture provides evidence of both domestic spaces and shared urban infrastructure. It does not, on its own, establish either a fully private-property system or a common-property system. Therefore, the claim that household architecture necessarily reflects common ownership is not adequately supported by the archaeological evidence.

Subject: Ancient Indian History

Topic: Harappan Civilisation

Source(s):

  • NCERT Text Book: Class VI History, Our Pasts-I, Chapter 3, “In the Earliest Cities”. The chapter describes spindle-whorls made of terracotta and faience and explains their use in spinning thread. It also notes evidence of cloth associated with Harappan artefacts.
  • NCERT Text Book: Class XII History, Themes in Indian History, Part I, Theme 1, “Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation”. The textbook explains that Harappan weights were generally cubical and commonly made of chert. Lower denominations followed a binary progression, while higher denominations followed the decimal system. It also records the discovery of metal scale-pans.
  • The chapter also describes Harappan houses arranged around courtyards, with brick-paved bathrooms and drainage connections. Many houses at Mohenjo-daro had wells. The textbook also discusses privacy in the layout of residential buildings.